Foundations of Early Vietnamese Kingdoms

In the mid-3rd century BCE, a Chinese warlord overtook the kingdom of Van Lang, establishing a new realm named Au Lac, with its capital at Co Loa, close to present-day Hanoi. This marked the first unification of the lowland Lac Viet and neighboring hill communities. However, in approximately 207 BCE, Au Lac itself fell to another Chinese leader and was incorporated into Nam Viet (Southern Viet), an independent kingdom extending through much of southern China. The Lac Viet people were able to preserve many of their native customs and local governance under Nam Viet’s rule. This relative autonomy ended in 111 BCE, when the Han emperors annexed the Red River Delta, initiating nearly a millennium of Chinese dominance.

Chinese Rule and Cultural Transformation

A thousand years under Chinese control left a profound impact on Vietnamese society, especially in its social and political systems. Confucian principles introduced a strict, hierarchical structure led by a mandarin class, which shaped Vietnamese administration until the 19th century. Chinese rule also brought technological advances, such as a written script, silk production, and large-scale hydraulic infrastructure. Additionally, Mahayana Buddhism arrived from China in the 2nd century CE.

Despite these influences, the Vietnamese were steadily forging their national identity through persistent resistance against their northern neighbors. On several occasions, the Vietnamese managed to expel their foreign rulers, the most renowned instance being the rebellion led by the Trung sisters (Hai Ba Trung) in 40 CE. After Trung Trac’s husband was killed by the Chinese, she and her sister rallied the local nobility and farmers, sparking Vietnam’s first major uprising against foreign rule. They successfully drove out the Chinese, with Trung Trac ruling the region from Hue to southern China until the Han emperor sent 20,000 troops and 2,000 ships to suppress the rebellion three years later. Rather than be captured, the sisters chose to end their lives in a river, cementing their status as national heroes in Vietnamese history. Although subsequent revolts were unsuccessful, the Trung sisters’ actions proved that Chinese rule was not unshakable.

During the following centuries, Vietnam became more intertwined with Chinese politics and culture. The 7th and 8th centuries were particularly challenging, as the Tang dynasty strengthened its control over the area it called Annam, or the “Pacified South.” However, with the collapse of the Tang dynasty in the early 10th century, a series of major uprisings culminated in the 938 CE battle of the Bach Dang River, where Ngo Quyen declared himself ruler of Nam Viet. Establishing his court at the historic Co Loa citadel, Ngo Quyen initiated nearly ten centuries of Vietnamese independence.