Although French colonial authorities promoted a “civilizing mission,” their main interest in Vietnam lay in economic exploitation. Governor-General Paul Doumer led an extensive infrastructure development effort, constructing railways, roads, and bridges and draining swathes of the Mekong Delta for agriculture. This ambitious project was funded by heavy taxes, while state monopolies on opium, alcohol, and salt generated about seventy percent of government revenue. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, market downturns forced many peasants off their land to become indentured laborers in rubber, tea, and coffee plantations or mines, often working under harsh, exploitative conditions. Steep taxes compounded rural poverty, and most commercial and industrial opportunities were tightly controlled by the French or a small minority of Vietnamese and Chinese elites who profited from the system.

On a more positive note, French colonial rule brought mass vaccination campaigns and health initiatives that helped control frequent outbreaks of cholera, smallpox, and plague. Education, however, remained contentious. Although a select urban elite received a French-based education, broad access to education declined during colonial rule, especially for unskilled laborers. A few Vietnamese from wealthier families studied in Europe, but their career opportunities remained limited, as the colonial administration largely restricted Vietnamese to low-level positions. Ironically, this marginalized, educated group—familiar with both Western liberal ideals and Chinese reformist thought—began to drive resistance against French colonial rule.