Richard Nixon took office in January 1969, following a campaign promise to “end the war and win the peace.” His administration sought a strategy that would allow for the withdrawal of American forces while maintaining the United States’ reputation, leading to the implementation of “Vietnamization.” This approach aimed for a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops, combined with the strengthening of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) through increased personnel and resources.

At the beginning of Nixon’s presidency, U.S. troop levels in Vietnam peaked at 540,000. However, by Christmas of that year, 60,000 soldiers had returned home, and the total number dropped to 280,000 by the end of 1970. During the same period, ARVN forces nearly doubled from 640,000 to over a million. Despite this increase, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) had been stockpiling troops and supplies in neighboring Cambodia for years. In March 1969, the U.S. initiated covert bombing operations in Cambodia, codenamed Operation Menu, which lasted for 14 months. This operation went largely unnoticed by Hanoi, as they had no legitimate claim to be in neutral Cambodia.

In the spring of 1970, a U.S.-backed coup in Cambodia ousted Prince Sihanouk, installing Lon Nol in his place, which allowed for greater U.S. military access. This development led to a deployment of 20,000 American soldiers advancing toward Communist positions in Cambodia. Public outrage erupted as many Americans realized that Nixon was not winding down the war but rather expanding it, prompting widespread antiwar demonstrations across the nation.

Following the death of Ho Chi Minh on September 2, 1969, peace talks in Paris progressed slowly, with Le Duc Tho representing North Vietnam and Henry Kissinger, Nixon’s national security adviser, representing the United States. Two main obstacles hindered progress: the North’s demand for a coalition government in the South that excluded then-President Thieu, and the U.S.’s insistence that all NVA troops withdraw to the North following a ceasefire.

In early 1972, both sides engaged in military offensives to strengthen their negotiating positions. Hanoi initiated the Easter Offensive in the southern provinces, prompting Nixon to resume bombing campaigns in the North. By the end of the year, negotiations resumed, with Hanoi showing a willingness to compromise, partly due to rumors of Nixon’s “Madman Theory,” which suggested the potential use of nuclear weapons. However, the draft agreement produced in October faced delays due to President Thieu’s objections in Saigon. By January 1973, before finalizing the agreement, Nixon authorized an intense eleven-day bombing campaign over Hanoi and Haiphong, dropping 20,000 tons of ordnance.

The Paris Accords were signed on January 27, 1973, establishing a ceasefire among the United States, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the Viet Cong. The agreements stipulated that all remaining American troops would be repatriated by April, and both Hanoi and Saigon would release their prisoners of war (POWs). However, the accords did not result in a long-term political settlement, opting instead to create a Council of National Conciliation, composed of the Saigon government and the Communists, to address future issues. The agreement allowed both NVA and ARVN forces to retain their positions at the time. For this ambiguous resolution, Kissinger and Le Duc Tho were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, though only Kissinger accepted the honor.

Evolution of War Terminology

The Vietnam War, marked by its unconventional nature, gave rise to a host of new terms that have since permeated popular culture and influenced subsequent conflicts. Operations aimed at flushing out active Viet Cong fighters from villages, which began in late 1965, were termed Search and Destroy missions; the most notorious of these was the My Lai massacre. In the highlands, firebases were established to enable artillery to target NVA troop movements, while free fire zones were designated to allow bombing in areas cleared of civilians, purportedly to eliminate guerrilla fighters.

Additionally, the scorched earth policy was employed to strip vast areas of vegetation to deny the Viet Cong cover. This approach was exemplified by the use of Agent Orange, a herbicide that has since become synonymous with the war’s devastating legacy. Specific military initiatives, such as Operation Rolling Thunder, also entered the lexicon of warfare. Throughout this conflict, military leaders emphasized the importance of body counts as a critical measure of mission success or failure, making it a significant and symbolic metric in the contentious narrative of the Vietnam War.