Alexandre de Rhodes and the Foundations of Vietnamese Catholicism

Portuguese Dominican missionaries were the earliest Europeans to arrive in Vietnam in the early 1500s, but it wasn’t until 1615, when Jesuit missionaries founded a small mission in Fai Fo (now Hoi An), that Catholicism began to establish roots. The success of this mission in the Nguyen territories motivated the Jesuits to expand northward. The task fell to Alexandre de Rhodes, a talented French linguist, who arrived in Fai Fo in 1627 and began preaching in Vietnamese within six months. His work won the favor of the Trinh lords in Hanoi, and he managed to convert nearly seven thousand Vietnamese within two years. During this time, he also developed a phonetic script for Vietnamese based on the Roman alphabet to simplify evangelism efforts. This script, known as quoc ngu, was later adopted as Vietnam’s national language, revolutionizing literacy and language in the country.

The French Conquest and Colonial Rule

As the 19th century progressed, France’s imperial ambitions grew, especially as Britain began to dominate trade with China. Vietnam presented a potential strategic pathway to resource-rich areas of Yunnan and southern China. While France had no formal policy for colonizing Indochina, colonization unfolded gradually, often driven by private adventurers or the independent actions of French officials. In 1847, two French naval vessels bombarded Da Nang, citing the need to protect a French priest. Exaggerated reports of Catholic persecution fueled pressure for intervention until, in 1858, Napoleon III sent a fleet of 14 ships and 2,500 troops. The French seized Da Nang in September and then moved south to capture Saigon, overcoming significant resistance to take control of the Mekong Delta over the next three years. Facing unrest in the north, Emperor Tu Duc signed a treaty in 1862 that ceded three eastern provinces of the Mekong Delta to France, along with select trading rights and freedom for missionaries to work in Vietnam. By 1867, France had annexed the remaining southern provinces to establish the colony of Cochinchina.

Although France encountered internal debate over its colonial ambitions, administrators in Cochinchina were eager to expand north. The first attempt to capture Hanoi in 1873 faltered, but a larger force succeeded in 1882, gaining control over Hanoi and the Red River Delta. This progress prompted the French parliament to fund the French Expeditionary Force, just as the Nguyen Dynasty faced internal struggles following Emperor Tu Duc’s death. In August 1883, the French fleet advanced to the Perfume River near Hue, compelling the new emperor to submit to their demands. Central Vietnam (Annam) and the north (Tonkin) became French protectorates, ultimately unified with Cochinchina, Cambodia, and later Laos to form the Union of Indochina in 1887. This consolidation marked the full establishment of French colonial rule in Vietnam and neighboring regions.