On May 8, 1954, the day following the French surrender at Dien Bien Phu, the focus of the nine delegations at the Geneva Conference shifted to Indochina. Despite the prevailing atmosphere of distrust, the conference managed to reach an ambiguous compromise that allowed the French to withdraw with some semblance of honor while partially acknowledging Vietnamese sovereignty. Eager to establish a weak and divided neighbor to their south, the Chinese delegation encouraged the Viet Minh to agree to a division of Vietnam, which they felt compelled to accept due to their reliance on Chinese military support.

According to the Geneva Accords, signed in July 1954, Vietnam was partitioned at the Seventeenth Parallel along the Ben Hai River, pending nationwide elections set for July 1956. A demilitarized zone was established on either side of this military boundary. Despite ongoing conflicts in the central highlands, France and the Viet Minh agreed to an immediate ceasefire and a withdrawal of their respective forces—Communists would retreat north, while non-Communists and French supporters would move south. While the accords were accepted by China, the USSR, Britain, France, and the Viet Minh, they were notably rejected by the United States and the government of Bao Dai, both of which feared that the agreements could lead to a unified, Communist Vietnam.

A Nation Divided

In the long run, the Geneva Accords exacerbated internal divisions within Vietnam and transformed the conflict into a broader ideological struggle between superpowers, played out on Vietnamese soil. One immediate effect was a significant migration from the north during the designated 300-day period of “free movement.” Approximately one million refugees, predominantly Catholic, fled south with assistance from the US Navy and some involvement from the CIA, which distributed alarming, anti-Communist propaganda to foster support for the puppet regime it was establishing in Saigon.

Conversely, nearly 100,000 anti-French guerrillas and sympathizers moved north to regroup. To prepare for future operations, between 5,000 and 10,000 Viet Minh operatives remained in the south, known as “stay-behinds” by the CIA and “winter cadres” by the Communists. Some spies also infiltrated the Catholic refugees heading south. In line with the ceasefire terms, Ho Chi Minh’s forces entered Hanoi on October 9, 1954, coinciding with the last French troops exiting the city.

As the Geneva Accords were still under negotiation, Emperor Bao Dai appointed himself as president and Ngo Dinh Diem as prime minister of South Vietnam on July 7, 1954. A staunch Catholic and fervently anti-Communist, Diem was aware that Ho Chi Minh would likely dominate in any proposed elections, leading him to reject the electoral process outright. His authority was “strengthened” by an October 1955 referendum, where he claimed an implausible 98.2 percent of the vote—a clear indication of vote manipulation rather than genuine public support. He swiftly displaced Bao Dai from power and declared himself president of the Republic of Vietnam.

Diem’s harsh tactics against remaining Viet Minh dissidents in the South proved to be severely misguided. Although his violent campaign against the Viet Minh drastically reduced their numbers, the brutal and indiscriminate nature of his actions led to widespread dissatisfaction among the populace, targeting anyone seen as a dissenter, regardless of their political affiliation. As the so-called “free world democracy” of the South devolved into a police state, over 50,000 citizens lost their lives during Diem’s brutal crackdown.